#11:118
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory
2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854We need to read Karl Marx
#3:45 Why the financial markets are seeking an MMT understanding – Part 2 billTuesday, July 2, 2019
Mitchell2019#26:422 Marx
#11:118
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory
2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854We need to read Karl Marx
http://nam-students.blogspot.jp/2011/10/blog-post_29.html?m=0
#3:45 Why the financial markets are seeking an MMT understanding – Part 2 billTuesday, July 2, 2019
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NAMs出版プロジェクト: AIMN Interview: Bill Mitchell – an unreasonable man EdwardEastwoodAugust 8, 2015
George Magnus – Economist and Author
Red Flags: Why Xi's China is in Jeopardy is the latest book from renowned economist George Magnus, acclaimed ...
Red Flags: Why Xi’s China is in Jeopardy :tr:赤い旗:Xiの中国が危険にさらされている理由: の著者
外紙が競って中国の経済改革を予想 土地制度改革が突破口に_中国網_ ...
... 化改革だろうというスイス銀行経済コンサルタントのジョージ・マグヌス氏の見通しを伝え、「これは戸籍制度と ...
422
ECONOMIC INSTABILITY
Marxist Theory of Crisis
26.3
Some analyses have identified processes inherent to the operation of capitalist economies to explain the inci-
dence of crisis. In other words, rather than looking to fundamentally irrational manias or to 'exogenous shocks
emanating from monetary authorities, these approaches attribute crisis to internal or endogenous factors.
Karl Marx in Capital claimed that the "anarchy of production" is an inevitable characteristic of an unplanned
economy in which decisions are made by numerous individuals in pursuit of profit. The capitalist system is such a
system and is subject to "disproportionalities" of production, so that some of the produced goods cannot be sold
at a price high enough to realise expected profits.
Central to his explanation was the recognition that production always begins with money, some of which is
borrowed. This is used to purchase labour and the instruments of production in order to produce commodities
for sale. If however, some of the commodities cannot be sold at a sufficiently high price, loans cannot be repaid
and bankruptcies occur.
Creditors may also be forced into bankruptcy when their debtors default because the creditors themselves will
have outstanding debts they cannot service. In this way, a snowball of defaults spreads throughout the economy
generating a panic as holders of financial assets begin to worry about the soundness of their investments.
Rather than waiting for debtors to default, holders of financial assets attempt to 'liquidate' (sell) assets to
obtain cash and other safer assets. This high demand for 'liquidity' (cash and marketable assets expected to hold
their nominal value) causes prices of less-liquid assets to collapse, and at the same time generates a reluctance
to spend as people try to hoard money. Thus, a financial crisis occurs in conjunction with a collapse of aggregate
demand (Sherman, 1991; Marx, 1990; 1991; 1992).
Marx argued that money is a precondition for an economic cycle because it allows the separation of sale and
purchase. He criticised Ricardo for denying the possibility of a glut. Ricardo's mistake was viewing capitalist pro-
duction as similar to production for barter exchange. No one would offer something for barter exchange without
simultaneously demanding something in return: 'supply creates demand'. But if one can sell for money, then a sale
does not necessarily create a demand. Ricardo's theory cannot apply to a capitalist economy, where production
is for sale for money.
Marx argued that even in the case of 'simple commodity production' (C-M-C') crisis becomes possible: one
produces a commodity for sale for money (C-M) in order to purchase another commodity but one might choose
to postpone the next purchase (M-C') by holding on to that money instead. Here C stands for a commodity that
is produced, M is the money for which the produced commodity is sold, and C' is the (different) commodity that
the first producer purchases with the money from the sale of the first commodity (C). In this sequence, money
is simply an intermediary, a medium of exchange, as the purpose of production is to obtain commodities (C') in
exchange. One might hold money temporarily as a store of value until one finds the desired commodity (C'). This
is still not a theory of capitalism, but even simple commodity production can experience a crisis.
As we saw in Chapters 3 and 11, in capitalism, production begins with money (M) only on expectation of
receiving more money (M') later. In this case, many things can go wrong. Producers may not believe production
will be profitable so it is not undertaken at all. Alternatively, produced goods may not be sold because capitalists
have misperceived the demand for the commodities they produce, or even if products are sold, the profits may
be lower than expected.
Marx defines capitalist production as the process of M-C-P-C'-M' (where P is the production process that
transforms commodity inputs (C) to final commodities (C') for sale to realise more money (M') which includes
profits. Note here that C is used to indicate commodity inputs and C' is used to denote final commodities. The
capitalist producer does not have a choice to not sell. Capitalists must sell in order to recoup the M with which
they started. They do not produce commodities for their own use, but rather produce them only to sell at profit.
Note also that Marx was not interested in a 'swindler' theory of profit, that is, a theory based on a 'buy low, sell
high' strategy. Prior to Marx, this was a common explanation of the source of profits, that is, the argument that
profits are created out of trade. However, Marx wanted to explain the source of profits in the production process
itself, In other words, his question was: Will all capitalists be able to achieve M? He concluded that this is possible
only if aggregate demand is sufficiently high and properly distributed. If not, any number of things can go wrong
26 Stabilising the Unstable Economy
423
to precipitatea crisis, including overproduction of commodities or a sudden fall of the profit rate. Those comprise
'actuality theory' -what actually happens. But all we need is a theory of effective demand based on a monetary
theory of production to allow for the possibility of crisis
Marx argued that capitalism is generally subject to increasingly severe crises. Briefly, this is due to the tendency
to replace 'living labour' (human labour) with 'dead labour' (capital equipment produced by labour). In Marx's
theory, only living labour can produce surplus labour value ('dead labour' can only reproduce the labour required
to produce the capital equipment), so as dead labour replaces living labour, the amount of surplus value pro-
duced tends to fall. Surplus labour value is the source of profits and as surplus value falls, profits also fall. While
Marx enumerated countervailing tendencies that could ameliorate and postpone this, he believed that the rate of
profit will tend to fall over time. As profit falls, capitalists have less reason to produce, which generates downturns
brought about by insufficient demand. The downturn makes it difficult to realise profits and service debts, which
can generate an increase in demand for credit to be used to pay debts. A fire sale of assets can accompany this
demand for credit, fuelling falling asset prices. The downturn can turn into a severe financial crisis. Marx believed
that capitalism is ultimately doomed, as (eventually) workers would rise up in response to these increasingly
severe crises, overth rowing capitalism and replacing it with socialism.
Baran and Sweezy (1966) replaced Marx's concept of a tendency of the falling rate of profit by a tendency of the
surplus to rise. This occurs as capitalists squeeze workers, increasing exploitation (reducing wages or requiring more
work hours for the same pay). The surplus must be absorbed through: (a) increased consumption; (b) investment;
and (c) waste. But as capitalist profit rises, their consumption as a ratio to profit falls; and the aggregate supply effect
of investment generates excess capacity so investment falls. Thus, waste is the only solution, largely taking the form
of sales effort, military adventures, and outsized growth of the financial sector to absorb the excess surplus created
In a similar vein, Joseph Gillman (1957) argued that modern capitalism produces an uninvestable surplus. In a
sense, the problem is that capital ism is too successful: its capacity to produce exceeds its albility to find new areas
in which to invest. Capital-saving technological advance reduces the need for surplus, while rising productivity of
labour increases the surplus. Some of the surplus can be absorbed in wasteful spending (some private and some
public) such as advertising and war. However, this is limited because it creates social, moral, and political tenden-
cies that are incompatible with democracy as the wasteful spending drains the public purse. Hence, while a policy
to increase demand can work temporarily to create uses for the uninvestable surplus, it cannot work in the long
run. It requires an ever-growing public sector to absorb the surplus, but capitalists will not sit back and let the
economy become socialised.
Along similar lines, Kalecki (1954) argued that mature capitalism exhibits a tendency to produce excess cap-
acity that then leads to stagnation. The demand for consumption goods is constrained by total wages (paid in
both the investment and the consumption goods sectors). The demand for investment goods is a function of
realised profits. Rapid accumulation of capital requires that the demand for capital grows faster than total wages
but excess productive capacity limits the demand for new capital equipment. Hence, capitalism needs another
source of 'spontaneous' demand, such as technological innovations to absorb capital, or the rising growth of gov-
ernment spending. The problem is worsened by a steady rise of the degree of monopoly power since the capacity
to set prices is supported by lower output and the maintenance of excess capacity (to ward off competition). That
depresses demand and only worsens the problem as the economy stagnates.
Steindl (1952) argued that the tendency toward stagnation implies that the rates of growth of capital and of
profit fall, reducing the share of capitalists. Monopoly capital tries to maintain prices in the face of low demand
by cutting production, leading to even more excess capacity; stagnation results in order to maintain a high profit
margin, but is self-defeating because unemployment and stagnant wages limit sales
In a famous paper, Kalecki (1943) argued that 'Keynesian' aggregate demand policies to address rising unem-
ployment caused by stagnation would produce a capitalist reaction, given that capital ists see unemployment as a
means of suppressing wage demands from workers. However, Kalecki did not foresee the political power of social
democratic governments that allowed them to pursue full employment policies in the post-Second World War
period, despite ongoing resistance from capitalists.
What is important in all of the approaches inspired by Marx is that the tendency to crisis is inherent to the
dynamics of the capitalist system. Crises are not due to irrational exuberance, policy mistakes, or uncertainty.
ref.
…
Galbraith, J.K. (1972) The Great Crash,Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
Gillman, J.M. (1957) The Falling Rate of Profit, Marx's Law, and its Significance to Twentieth Century Capitalism, London: Dennis Dobson.
Kalecki, M. (1943) "Political Aspects of Full Employment", Political Quarterly, October, 14(4), 322-30.
Kalecki, M. (1954) Theory of Economic Dynamics: An Essay on Cyclical and Long-Run Changes in Capitalist Economy, New York: Rinehart.
Keynes, J.M. (1936) The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money, New York and London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1957 Reprint.
Kindleberger, C. (1989) Manias, Panics, and Crashes: A History of Financial Crises, New York: Basic Books.
Marx, K. (1990) Capital: Volume 1, Penguin Classics: London.
Marx, K. (1991) Capital: Volume 2, Penguin Classics: London.
Marx, K. (1992) Capital: Volume 3, Penguin Classics: London.
Minsky, H. (1975) John Maynard Keynes, New York: Columbia University Press.
Minsky, H.P. (1982) Can "It" Happen Again: Essays on Instability and Finance, New York: M.E. Sharpe.
Minsky, H. (1986) Stabilising an Unstable Economy, New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press.
Papadimitriou, D. and Wray, L..R. (1998) "The Economic Contributions of Hyman Minsky: Varieties of Capitalism and
Institutional Reform", Review of Political Economy, 10, 199-225.
Sherman, H.(1991) The Business Cycle, Growth and Crisis under Capitalism, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Steindl, J.(1952) Maturity and Stagnation in American Capitalism, New York and London: Monthly Review Press.
Veblen, T. (1904) The Theory of the Business Enterprise, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
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#11:118
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory
2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854We need to read Karl Marx
Even so-called progressives these days, think it is fashionable to claim that class is dead – that its not about class any more – that left-right is obsolete – etc.
I recall a US PBR Interview earlier this year with the Democrat-leaning founder of the Huffington Post said, in response to a question about political perceptions of the now AOL-owned site, that:
… I’m tired of hearing myself say — it’s time for all of us in journalism to move beyond left and right. Truly, it is an obsolete way of looking at the problems America is facing.
I guess it would be if you had made millions on the back of free labour. But that is a typical position these days. The conservatives, of-course would always argue that because they seek to obfuscate the workings of the class hierarchy.
They have a vested interest in developing the “free market” myth where we are all, essentially, free traders and own-producers at heart who agree (aided by market forces) to specialise into labour suppliers or capital providers. The myth continues that we are all free traders – everything is voluntary and all exchanges are mediated by market prices which deliver equalised use values to each exchanger to be enjoyed upon completion of the same.
I clearly do not hold that view – that left- and right-wing is an obsolete dichotomy. While I think the dichotomy can be enriched by adding another axis to form a quadrant (for example, Politicial Compass), the left-right axis still has relevance.
The free market – everything can be understood at the exchange level – view falls in a hole when we focus on the labour market. After all, workers do not sell labour – they rather sell labour power (the capacity to work). That immediately invokes a managerial imperative. Why? Answer: because the use-value of the labour power is enjoyed (extracted) within the actual exchange (that is, while the workers are still at work). The use-value – the source of profit – is uncertain and a control function is indicated.
Bosses have to control the realisation of that use value as production in an environment where the majority of workers would rather not be there. That is a very different dynamic environment to one where we go into a shop and buy a trinket to be enjoyed later.
Essentially left and right, for me, is about class dynamics and I am using class in the Marxian sense here. I know there are complex layers over the basic capital-worker distinction and certainly these layers are exploited by the power elites to obscure them further (for example, gender, sexuality, race etc) but when push-comes-to-shove the struggle over the distribution of income arising from production is still highly significant.
We cannot really understand the crisis unless we understand the underlying class dynamics. Sure enough I usually say that the crisis is the result of poor government policy and a failure to employ the fiscal tools at the disposal of governments in an appropriate way. But the question that follows is WHY?
Why are our governments coming under pressure to tighten fiscal policy when it is clear that more spending is desperately required and it doesn’t look like it will come from the non-government sector?
Getting real – how is it that the political debate is being swamped by those who want large spending cuts at a time when unemployment and underemployment in the largest economy is moving close to 20 per cent?
How is it that we ignore the fact that every day, millions of workers are slowly or less slowly exhausting all the wealth that they had built up over their working lives just to live a basic life because their incomes have dried up through lack of work?
How is it that people who say that unemployment benefits should be cut now when for millions they are the only lifeline can even be taken seriously?
How is it that when the major investment banks of Wall Street (and elsewhere in other nations) – who had acted with as much regard for the law and civil society as the bootleggers and dope dealers of the prohibition period – looked like going broke as their bets exploded in their faces – could the government, within hours, announce massive bailouts – yet something as basic as creating public jobs at a minimum wage is deemed unaffordable?
How is it that thousands of criminals are still turning up for work each day in the financial sector and extracting massive bonuses for performing totally unproductive work when thousands of poor (black) individuals are being imprisoned every day for minor crimes against property and usually against their own kind?
Anyway, what has Marx got to do with all of this?
George Magnus says that:
Policy makers struggling to understand the barrage of financial panics, protests and other ills afflicting the world would do well to study the works of a long-dead economist: Karl Marx. The sooner they recognize we’re facing a once-in-a-lifetime crisis of capitalism, the better equipped they will be to manage a way out of it.
This is being said by an advisor to an investment bank and is being published by Bloomberg.
The basis of Magnus’ call for us all to read Marx lies in his view that, while the “wily philosopher’s analysis of capitalism had a lot of flaws … today’s global economy bears some uncanny resemblances to the conditions he foresaw”.
I have been involved in my share of arcane debates about what Marx said and whether we can reinterpret his predictions (falling rate of profit etc) to make them square with the facts. Whatever utility we might get from those rather in-crowd debates, the bottom line is that the basic insights of Marx are still of relevance.
And in noting that we should start with reinstating attention to class.
George Magnus says:
Consider, for example, Marx’s prediction of how the inherent conflict between capital and labor would manifest itself. As he wrote in “Das Kapital,” companies’ pursuit of profits and productivity would naturally lead them to need fewer and fewer workers, creating an “industrial reserve army” of the poor and unemployed: “Accumulation of wealth at one pole is, therefore, at the same time accumulation of misery.”
George Magnus then relates that insight to the current situation in the US “particularly” where “U.S. Companies’ efforts to cut costs and avoid hiring have boosted U.S. corporate profits as a share of total economic output to the highest level in more than six decades, while the unemployment rate stands at 9.1 percent and real wages are stagnant”.
I have written before about who has benefitted from the nascent growth in the US since the crisis began. Please read this blog – The top-end-of-town have captured the growth – which categorically shows that the employed workers have not enjoyed real wages growth while profits have soared and the growing ranks of the unemployed and underemployed have not enjoyed anything.
The neo-liberal period – crisis included – has been an attack on the conditions of workers and the suppression of the lower ends of the income distribution. In this blog – The origins of the economic crisis – I outline how deregulation has dramatically altered the distribution of national income over the last 30 years in the advanced nations with governments being the facilitators.
George Magnus says that in addition to rising profits and entrenched unemployment:
U.S. income inequality, meanwhile, is by some measures close to its highest level since the 1920s. Before 2008, the income disparity was obscured by factors such as easy credit, which allowed poor households to enjoy a more affluent lifestyle. Now the problem is coming home to roost.
Interestingly, the Australian Bureau of Statistics released the latest data today for Household Income and Income Distribution, Australia, 2009-10 which allows us to see the impact of the crisis (partly) on income inequality.
This graph plots the Gini Coefficient (which the ABS say is “a single statistic that lies between 0 and 1 and is a summary indicator of the degree of inequality, with values closer to 0 representing a lesser degree of inequality, and values closer to 1 representing greater inequality”) for Australia from 1994-95 to 2009-10.
To put it in perspective, the values for the US and the UK would be “off the top” of the graph. But the so-called “egalitarian” land of Australia (a myth that is embedded into us as school children) is becoming more like the US every year. There was some respite during the crisis but the trend is clear.
The ABS show that the bottom quintile (20 per cent) of the income distribution receive 7.1 per cent of total income, the next quintile (20-39 per cent) receive 12 per cent; the next quintile (40-59 per cent) receive 16.9 per cent, the fourth quintile (60-79 per cent) receive 23.3 per cent; and the top quintile receive 40.8 per cent of total income.
The ABS also show that the wealth distribution:
… is much more unequal than for income … 20% of households with the lowest net worth accounted for only 1% of total household net worth, with an average net worth of $31,829 per household … The wealthiest 20% of households in Australia account for 62% of total household net worth, with an average net worth of $2.2 million per household.
The US income and wealth distributions are more skewed than this.
The next graph shows the shares in total household income of the bottom (blue columns) and top (grey columns) quintiles of the income distribution. The black lines depict the linear regression trend of each of the series and the direction is obvious.
This data is consistent with the dramatic shifts in factor shares in national income. The data above is focused on the household unit. Factor shares is based on “class” in that it considers wage and profit income. The two distributional perspectives are tied together and offer different views of the same underlying trends (with some complexities).
One of the characteristic features of the last thirty or so years has been the dramatic rise in the profit share (and the commensurate fall in the wage share).
The assault on regulation and the attack on workers’ rights brought about a growing gap between labor productivity and real wage growth. The result has been a dramatic redistribution of national income toward capital in most countries. For example, in the G7 countries between 1982 and 2005 there was a 6 percent drop in the share of national income paid as wages (as opposed to interest or dividends). This was a global trend.
In the past, real wages grew in line with productivity, ensuring that firms could realize their expected profits via sales. With real wages lagging well behind productivity growth, a new way had to be found to keep workers consuming. The trick was found in the rise of “financial engineering,” which pushed ever increasing debt onto the household sector.
Capitalists found that they could sustain sales and receive an additional bonus in the form of interest payments—while also suppressing real wage growth.
Households, enticed by lower interest rates and the relentless marketing strategies of the financial sector, embarked on a credit binge.
The increasing share of real output (income) pocketed by capital became the gambling chips for a rapidly expanding and deregulated financial sector.
Governments claimed this would create wealth for all. And for a while, nominal wealth did grow—though its distribution did not become fairer. However, greed got the better of the bankers, as they pushed increasingly riskier debt onto people who were clearly susceptible to default. This was the origin of the subprime housing crisis of 2007–08.
This is what George Magnus is referring to when he talks about how “easy credit, which allowed poor households to enjoy a more affluent lifestyle” obscured the underlying inequality dynamics.
George Magnus further invokes Marx when he talks about the “Over-Production Paradox”:
Marx also pointed out the paradox of over-production and under-consumption: The more people are relegated to poverty, the less they will be able to consume all the goods and services companies produce. When one company cuts costs to boost earnings, it’s smart, but when they all do, they undermine the income formation and effective demand on which they rely for revenues and profits.
This problem, too, is evident in today’s developed world. We have a substantial capacity to produce, but in the middle- and lower-income cohorts, we find widespread financial insecurity and low consumption rates. The result is visible in the U.S., where new housing construction and automobile sales remain about 75% and 30% below their 2006 peaks, respectively.
As Marx put it in Kapital: “The ultimate reason for all real crises always remains the poverty and restricted consumption of the masses.”
This has been a topic that I have spent a lot of time thinking and writing about. We cover it in our 2008 book – Full Employment abandoned.
Keynes used the inability of the Neoclassical economists to explain the reality of the 1930s to introduce the concept of involuntary unemployment. Understanding the meaning of involuntary unemployment requires a prior understanding of how the concept of effective demand was introduced into the analysis. The aim was to negate the Classical view that the real outcomes of the economy were determined by the full employment equilibrium achieved in the labour market. In other words, aggregate demand – or more correctly – effective demand matters.
Post Keynesians typically begin with Keynes’ General Theory (1936) in explicating the principle of effective demand. However, the essential elements underpinning the critique of Say and the modern understanding of involuntary unemployment in a monetary capitalist economy can be found in Marx, particularly in Theories of Surplus Value (1863).
Particularly in Chapter 17 there are various discussions about the Classical (Ricardian) denial of the possibility of generalised overproduction and how that erroneous view is based on the idea that products exchange against products. This is at the heart of Classical neutrality which ultimately is the modern version of the claim that fiscal and monetary policy cannot favourably alter real conditions in the economy.
In Theories of Surplus Value Vol 2, Chapter 17 (para 705) we read:
The conception (which really belongs to [James] Mill), adopted by Ricardo from the tedious Say (and to which we shall return when we discuss that miserable individual), that overproduction is not possible or at least that no general glut of the market is possible, is based on the proposition that products are exchanged against products, or as Mill put it, on the “metaphysical equilibrium of sellers and buyers”, and this led to [the conclusion] that demand is determined only by production, or also that demand and supply are identical. The same proposition exists also in the form, which Ricardo liked particularly, that any amount of capital can be employed productively in any country.
Marx really laid into Say. This paragraph also highlights why the use of “barter economy” examples is deeply flawed. A monetary economy has dynamics that are not captured in a barter world where products exchange against products directly.
If we mapped the current conservative (neo-liberal) position (and most of mainstream economics) back into the classical propositions that Marx was attacking we would find the correspondence to be close to 100 per cent in terms of concepts and implications.
They were wrong then and by logical extension they are wrong now.
The existence of a circuit breaker in the form of idle money stocks (recognising that money is more than a means of exchange but also an independent form of commodity) led Marx to conclude that there was the possibility of stagnation (defined as a conflict between purchase and sale) – (see Theories of Surplus Value Vol 2, Chapter 17, paras 710-711).
Interestingly, in TSV (Vol II, Ch XVII, para 712) Marx also anticipated the modern distinction between nominal and effective demand which lies in the understanding of the real contribution of Keynes. Marx noted that in denying the possibility of a general glut, Ricardo appeals to unlimited needs of consumers for commodities and any particular saturation would be quickly overcome by increased demands for other commodities.
He then (TSV, Vol II, Ch XVII, para 712) rhetorically asked for an explanation of the connection between ‘over-production’ and ‘absolute needs’ and indicated that capitalist production and quotes Ricardo’s denial of the “possibility of a general glut in the market”:
Too much of a particular commodity may he produced, of which there may he such a glut in the market, as not to repay the capital expended on it; but this cannot be the case with respect to all commodities; the demand for corn is limited by the mouths which are to eat it, for shoes and coats by the persons who are to wear them; but though a community, or a part of a community, may have as much corn, and as many hats and shoes, as it is able or may wish to consume, the same cannot be said of every commodity produced by nature or by art. Some would consume more wine, if they had the ability to procure it. Others having enough of wine, would wish to increase the quantity or improve the quality of their furniture. Others might wish to ornament their grounds, or to enlarge their houses. The wish to do all or some of these is implanted in every man’s breast; nothing is required but the means, and nothing can afford the means, but an increase of production …
Marx retorted:
Could there be a more childish argument? It runs like this: more of a particular commodity may be produced than can be consumed of it; but this cannot apply to all commodities at the same time. Because the needs, which the commodities satisfy, have no limits and all these needs are not satisfied at the same time. On the contrary. The fulfilment of one need makes another, so to speak, latent. Thus nothing is required, but the means to satisfy these wants, and these means can only be provided through an increase in production. Hence no general overproduction is possible.
What is the purpose of all this? In periods of over-production, a large part of the nation (especially the working class) is less well provided than ever with corn, shoes etc., not to speak of wine and furniture. If over-production could only occur when all the members of a nation had satisfied even their most urgent needs, there could never, in the history of bourgeois society up to now, have been a state of general over-production or even of partial over-production. When, for instance, the market is glutted by shoes or calicoes or wines or colonial products, does this perhaps mean that four-sixths of the nation have more than satisfied their needs in shoes, calicoes etc.? What after all has over-production to do with absolute needs? It is only concerned with demand that is backed by ability to pay. It is not a question of absolute over-production—over-production as such in relation to the absolute need or the desire to possess commodities. In this sense there is neither partial nor general over-production; and the one is not opposed to the other.
Note the reference to the capitalist market being “only concerned with demand that is backed by ability to pay. It is not a question of absolute over-production – over-production as such in relation to the absolute need or the desire to possess commodities.”
I urge you to read the whole section in Theories of Surplus Value because its wisdom lies at the heart of the modern problem of high unemployment and stagnant growth. Keynes didn’t offer much more than you can find in this work by Marx.
George Magnus says that the message of Marx in the current crisis is that:
… policy makers have to place jobs at the top of the economic agenda, and consider other unorthodox measures. The crisis isn’t temporary, and it certainly won’t be cured by the ideological passion for government austerity.
He lists “five major planks” for revival:
1. “we have to sustain aggregate demand and income growth” and governments “must make employment creation the litmus test of policy”.
2. “lighten the household debt burden”. He thinks governments should assist low income households to “restructure mortgage debt, or swap some debt forgiveness for future payments to lenders out of any home price appreciation”. In this 2009 blog – When a country is wrecked by neo-liberalism – I outlined a desirable policy initiative to help home-owners who were facing eviction from their homes because they could no longer service their debts. It is similar to that being advocated now by George Magnus.
3. help banks “to get new credit flowing to small companies, especially” by relaxing capital adequacy rules and direct public “spending on or indirect financing of national investment or infrastructure programs”. The exact nature of the intervention is disputable but the intent is not. The solution must see aggregate demand being stimulated and with flat non-government spending, the responsibility for pushing the spending out lies with the government.
4. “to ease the sovereign debt burden in the euro zone, European creditors have to extend the lower interest rates and longer payment terms recently proposed for Greece”. While this would provide temporary relief it doesn’t get to the heart of the matter which is the flawed (and dysfunctional) design of the overall monetary system. Such “relief” would not solve the inherent problem.
5. “to build defenses against the risk of falling into deflation and stagnation, central banks should look beyond bond- buying programs, and instead target a growth rate of nominal economic output”. I do not support the central bank being a major player in counter-stabilisation policy. I will write about this in more detail another time.
Conclusion
I found it interesting that a person who advises the financial markets would suggest that Karl Marx retained relevance. It is clear that capitalism has reached a crisis point after 3 decades of deregulation, privatisation, welfare cuts etc were argued would optimise its performance. It was clear that all this neo-liberal legislation did was to push more power to capital, redistribute real income away from the workers, and reduce the political capacity of governments to use fiscal policy and regulation to mediate the class struggle and sustain full employment.
Capital has never like full employment. Marx knew that. The last thirty years or so has seen the gains made by workers and their unions over a century of struggle eroded away by the relentless attack on their rights and conditions.
The class struggle is alive and dominant this crisis.
I should add that today in the Murdoch Press in Australia there are articles starting to appear which blame the unions for the crisis and claim that the Australian government’s decision to retract some of the worst industrial relations laws that the previous conservative government had enacted which gave massive power to the employers has also caused our economy to slow down. Stay tuned for more of these sort of “class based” attacks.
That is enough for today!
マルクスはリカードの資本分析が間違っていると批判するがそれは深さが足りないという意味であろう。
マルエン全集26ii
p.683
「章リカードの蓄積論.それの批判
683
恐慌(したがってまた過剰生産)が一般的であるためには、
それが主要な商品を襲えば足りる。
[九 資本主義の諸条件のもとでの生産と消費との関係に関するリカードのまちがった見解]
リカードが市場の一般的供給過剰をどのようにして否定し去ろうとしているか、ということをもっと詳しく聞く
ことにしよう。
「ある特殊な商品があまりにも多く生産されすぎて、それに支出された資本を償いえないほどに市場で供給過
剰になるということは、ありうるであろう。しかし、この ことはすべての商品については起こりえない。穀物に
た いする需要は、それを食べる口の数によって、靴と上着にた いする需要は、それを身につける人間の数によっ
て、制限されている。だが、たとえ一社会、または一社会の一部が、その消費しうるだけの、または消費したい
と思うだけの穀物や帽子や靴をもつということがありうるとしても、同じことを、自然または技術によって生産
されるすべての商品について言うことはできない。ある者は、もし手に入れる能力さえあれば、より多くのぶど
う酒を消費するであろう。ぶどう酒を十分にもっている他の人々は、自分の家具の量をふやし、質を改善したい
と思うであろう。また他の人々は、自分の庭園を飾ったり、自分の住宅を拡げたりした いと思らかもしれない。
こういうことの全部またはいくらかをやりたいという願望は、どんな人間の胸中にもうえつけられている。必要
なのはただ資力だけである。そして生産の増加だけが資力をもたらしうるのである。」(同前、三四一/三四二ペ
1ジ。
〔小泉訳、下、二五/
二六ページ。])
p.684
これほど子供じみた議論がありらるであろうか? それは、次のように言うのである。特殊な一商品については、
それを消費しうるよりも多く生産されることがありうる。しかし、これがすべての商品について同時にあてはまる
ことはありえない。なぜなら、商品によってみたされる欲望には限界がないし、また、これらのすべての欲望は同
時にはみたされないからである。反対に、一つの欲望の充足は、他の欲望をいわば潜在的なものにするのである。
したがって、この欲望をみたすために必要なのは資力だけであり、この資力は生産の増加だけがもたらしうるので
ある。したがって、一般的過剰生産はありえないのだ、と。
このようなことはすべていったいなんの役にたつのか? 過剰生産のときには、国民中の大きな部分(特に労働
者階級)は、どんなときよりも少ない穀物や靴などを与えられる。ぶどう酒や家具については言うまでもない。仮
りに、国民のすべての成員が最も必要な欲望だけでもみたしたのちでなければ過剰生産は起こりえないとしたら、
ブルジョア社会のこれまでの歴史において、一般的過剰生産はもとより部分的過剰生産でさえも起こりえなかった
であろう。たとえば、市場が靴とかキャラコとかぶどう酒とか植民地の生産物とかで供給過剰な場合、このこと
は、国民のほぼ六分の四までが靴やキャラコなどにたいする彼らの欲望をみたしてなお余りがあった、ということ
を意味するのであろらか? そもそも過剰生産は絶対的な欲望とどんな関係があるのであろうか? 過剰生産は、
ただ、支払能力のある欲望に関係があるだけである。問題は、絶対的過剰生産~絶対的な必要または商品を手に
入れたい願望との関係における過剰生産それ自体~ではない。この意味においては、部分的過剰生産も一般的過
剰生産もともに存在しない。また、両方が互いに対立をなすこともまったくない。
しかし、リカードは次のように言うであろう、もし靴やキャラコを欲する人が多くいるとすれば、なぜ彼らは、
靴やキャラコを買うことを可能にするなにかを生産することによって、それらを手に入れる手段を自分で獲得し
ないのであろうか? と。これは、次のように言ったほうがもっと簡単ではないであろうか。すなわち、なぜ彼ら
p.685
リカードの蓄積論、それの批判
685
第17章
は自分で靴やキャラコを生産しないのであろうか? と。しかも過剰生産のさいにいっそう奇妙なことは、市場に
過剰に供給されている商品そのものの本来の生産者たちーー労働者たちーーに商品が欠乏している、ということで
0ある。この場合には、彼らはそれらの物を手にいれるためにはそれを生産するべきだ、などと言うことはできない。
なぜなら、彼らはそれを生産したのに、しかも、それをもっていないのだからである。また、特定の商品が市場に
過剰に供給されているのは、その商品にたいする欲望が存在しないからだ、と言うこともできない。したがって、
市場に過剰に供給されている商品はそれにたいする欲望をみたしてなお余りがあるのだ、ということからは、部分
的過剰生産でさえも説明することができないとすれば、市場にある多くの商品にたいして、欲望が、つまりまだ充
足されていない欲望が存在するということによって、普遍的な過剰生産をありえないものとして説く、ということ
もできないことである。
キャラコ織物業者(1)の例について、もう少し考えてみよう。再生産がーーしたがってまた、この再生産のうち、商
品としてつまり販売されうる簡品として存在する生産物、キャラコが、その価値どおりに貨幣に再転化される局面
もーー中断されずに進行していたかぎりでは、このキャラコを生産する労働者もまたその一部を消費していた、と
しよう。また再生産の拡大ーーすなわち蓄積ーーとともに、彼らが消費するキャラコも累進的に増大し、あるいは
またキャラコの生産に従事する労働者の数も増加して、彼らは同時にキャラコ消費者の一部に加わった、としよう。
(1)
本巻、本分冊、四七八ー四八〇 〔原〕ペ1ジを見よ。
《 過剰生産は、
ただ、支払能力のある欲望に関係があるだけである。問題は、絶対的過剰生産~絶対的な必要または商品を手に
入れたい願望との関係における過剰生産それ自体~ではない。この意味においては、部分的過剰生産も一般的過
剰生産もともに存在しない。また、両方が互いに対立をなすこともまったくない。[マルエン全集26ii.p684]》☆
☆☆
Give Karl Marx a Chance to Save the World Economy: George Magnus - Bloomberg
2011/8/29
https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2011-08-29/give-marx-a-chance-to-save-the-world-economy-commentary-by-george-magnusGive Karl Marx a Chance to Save the World Economy: George Magnus
view
George MagnusAug. 29 (Bloomberg) -- Policy makers struggling to understand the barrage of financial panics, protests and other ills afflicting the world would do well to study the works of a long-dead economist: Karl Marx. The sooner they recognize we’re facing a once-in-a-lifetime crisis of capitalism, the better equipped they will be to manage a way out of it.
The spirit of Marx, who is buried in a cemetery close to where I live in north London, has risen from the grave amid the financial crisis and subsequent economic slump. The wily philosopher’s analysis of capitalism had a lot of flaws, but today’s global economy bears some uncanny resemblances to the conditions he foresaw.
To continue reading this article, you must be a Bloomberg News subscriber.
Get unlimited access for $1.99/mo.
☆☆☆
マルクスに世界経済を救うチャンスを!
今日の綱領講座で、志位さんが紹介していたジョージ・マグナス氏(UBSインベスティメント・バンク上級経済顧問)の論文というのは、こちら↓。ブルームバーグというアメリカの経済誌に載った論評です。
Give Karl Marx a Chance to Save the World Economy: George Magnus – Bloomberg
で、ヘッポコ訳です。志位さんが紹介したものほど翻訳は洗練されておりませんので、そこんところはご容赦を。(^_^;)
マルクスに世界経済救済のチャンスを
ジョージ・マグナス:ブルームバーグ 2011年8月29日
金融パニック、抗議およびその他の世界を苦しめる病気の連続をどう理解するか悪戦苦闘している政策立案者たちは、長いあいだ葬り去れていた経済学者の著作を研究するのがよいだろう。その経済学者とはカール・マルクスである。彼らが資本主義の一生に一度の危機に直面しているということに気づくのが早ければ早いほど、彼らは、そこから抜け出す道を見つけだす準備をよりうまくできるだろう。
マルクスは、私がかつて住んでいたロンドン北部に近い共同墓地に埋葬されているが、彼の亡霊は、金融危機と実体経済の落ち込みの真最中で墓からよみがえった。この頭のよい哲学者の資本主義分析は多くの欠陥を持っているが、今日のグローバル経済は、彼が予言した諸条件に不思議なほど似てきている。
たとえば、資本と労働との内在的対立がどのように現われるかについてのマルクスの予言について考えてみよう。『資本論』でマルクスが言っているように、企業の利潤と生産性の追求は、当然、企業に必要な労働者をますます少なくしてゆき、貧困者と失業者からなる「産業予備軍」を生み出す。「したがって、一方の極における富の蓄積は、同時に〔他方の極における〕窮乏の蓄積である」
彼が描いたプロセスは、発達した資本主義世界のいたるところで目にすることができる。とくに、アメリカでは、企業のコスト削減と雇用回避のための努力は、アメリカの法人利益を急上昇させ、総経済産出に占める割合は過去60年間で最高水準になった。他方で、失業率は9.1%に達し、実質賃金は停滞している。
同時に、アメリカの所得格差は、いくつかの指標によれば、1920年代以来の最高水準にある。2008年以前には、所得の不均衡は、いくつかの要因によって見えにくくされていた。たとえば、安易な信用は、貧しい家持層により豊かなライフスタイルを可能にした。いまや問題はわが身に降りかかっている。過剰生産のパラドクス
マルクスはまた、過剰生産と過少消費のパラドクスを指摘した。すなわち、貧困に落ち込む人々が増えれば増えるほど、ますます企業が生産する財貨やサービスをすべて消費することができなくなるだろう。1つの企業が儲けを増やすためにコストを削減するのは賢明だが、すべての企業がおこなえば、彼らは、自分たちが収益の基礎においている収入構造と有効需要を掘り崩してしまう。
この問題もまた、今日の発達した資本主義世界で明白になっている。われわれは十分な生産能力を持っているが、中低所得層のなかには広範な金融不安と消費率の低下が存在している。結果は明らかだ。アメリカでは、新しい住宅建築と自動車販売は2006年のピークに比べてそれぞれ75%、30%落ち込んだままだ。
マルクスは『資本論』でこういっている。「あらゆる現実の恐慌の究極の原因は、つねに大衆の貧困と制限された消費にある」。危機に対処する
では、どのようにしてこの危機に対処するか? マルクスの亡霊を棺の中に戻すためには、政策立案者たちは雇用を経済的課題のトップに置き、その他の非正当的な手段を検討しなければならない。危機は一時的なものではなく、緊縮財政へのイデオロギー的情熱によっては治癒されないだろう。
ここに5つの主要な戦略要綱――残念ながら、まだその時期は来ていないが――がある。
第1に、総需要および所得の伸びを維持しなければならない。さもなければ、われわれは、深刻な社会的結果をともなう債務のワナにはまり込むだろう。差し迫った債務危機に直面していない諸政府――そこにはアメリカ、ドイツ、イギリスが含まれる――は、雇用創出を政策のリトマス試験紙にしなければならない。アメリカでは、就業人口比率は、1980年代と同じぐらい低くなっている。不完全就業の指標はほとんどすべてのところで過去最悪を記録している。雇用主の負担する給与税を削減し、企業に雇用と投資を促す財政的インセンティブを生み出すことが、まず最初にやられるだろう。負担を軽くする
第2に、家計の債務の負担を軽くするために、新しい措置は、適格な家計については、住宅ローンをリストラすること、あるいは、一定の債務を将来の住宅価格の値上がりによる貸主への支払いとスワップして免除することを認めるべきだろう。
第3に、信用システムの機能性を改良するために、十分に資本増強され十分な資本構成を持つ銀行は、とくに中小企業への新しい信用を引き受けるために、一時的に自己資本比率の軽減を認められるべきだろう。政府と中央銀行は、国内投資もしくはインフラ計画にたいして、直接的な財政支出、あるいは、間接的なファイナンスをおこなうことができるだろう。
第4に、ユーロ圏では政府債務の負担を軽減するために、ヨーロッパの債権者たちは、現在提案されているギリシャにたいする低い利子率と支払期限の延長を拡大しなければならない。もし共同保証ユーロ債が実現されないのであれば、ドイツは、巨大化されたヨーロッパ金融安定機構を通じて不可避的損失の吸収を助けるために、銀行の緊急の資本増強を支持しなければならない。それは、少なくとも債券市場危機を解決するための必須条件だ。防壁を築く
第5に、デフレと停滞におちいる危険にたいする防壁を築くために、中央銀行は、債券購入プログラムの先を展望し、むしろ名目経済産出高の成長率を目標にすべきだろう。それは、一時的に適度な高さのインフレをもたらすが、インフレは、実質利子率をゼロ以下に押さえ込み、債務の負担を軽くすることを容易にするだろう。
これらの提案がどのようにうまくいくか、あるいはそれらの予期せぬ結果がどんなものになるかは分からない。しかし、現状維持の政策もまた受け入れることはできない。それは、アメリカをより不安定な日本にするだろうし、ユーロ圏を破壊して予測不可能な政治的結果をもたらすだろう。2013年までに、西側資本主義の危機は簡単に中国に広がるかもしれないが、それはまた別の問題だ。
小さい間違いはご容赦を。大きな勘違いは、ぜひご教示ください。ヘッポコ訳の出来には何の保証もいたしません。紹介される場合は、英文から自分の責任で翻訳してください。(11/25、あまりに適当な部分を一部改訳しました。)
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory
2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854
ミッチェル2019はオックスフォード大学中国センターのエコノミスト、スイス銀行
返信削除コンサルタントジョージマグヌス経由でマルクス剰余価値学説史を引用している
2019#11:178でもマルクス剰余価値学説史が引用されているがブログではもっと広範囲だ
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory
2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854
We need to read Karl Marx
billTuesday, August 30, 2011
there was an interesting Bloomberg article (August 29, 2011) – Give Karl Marx a Chance to Save the World Economy – by one George Magnus, who is listed as a senior economic adviser at UBS Investment Bank.
ミッチェルが参照したマグヌスの記事は、
https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2011-08-29/give-marx-a-chance-to-save-the-world-economy-commentary-by-george-magnus ☆☆有料
邦訳
マルクスに世界経済を救うチャンスを! | Internet Zone
2011/10/18
http://ratio.sakura.ne.jp/archives/2011/10/18232418/
…
マルクスはまた、過剰生産と過少消費のパラドクスを指摘した。すなわち、貧困に落ち込む人々
が増えれば増えるほど、ますます企業が生産する財貨やサービスをすべて消費することができ
なくなるだろう。1つの企業が儲けを増やすためにコストを削減するのは賢明だが、すべての
企業がおこなえば、彼らは、自分たちが収益の基礎においている収入構造と有効需要を掘り崩し てしまう。
…
以下剰余価値学説史から
《It is only concerned with demand that is backed by ability to pay. It is not a question of absolute
over-production—over-production as such in relation to the absolute need or the desire to possess
commodities. In this sense there is neither partial nor general over-production; and the one is not
opposed to the other.》
ch.17
[9. Ricardo’s Wrong Conception of the Relation Between Production and Consumption under the Conditions of Capitalism]
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/ch17.htm
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/
《過剰生産は、
ただ、支払能力のある欲望に関係があるだけである。問題は、絶対的過剰生産~絶対的な必要または商品を手に
入れたい願望との関係における過剰生産それ自体~ではない。この意味においては、部分的過剰生産も一般的過
剰生産もともに存在しない。また、両方が互いに対立をなすこともまったくない。[マルエン全集26ii.p684]》
剰余価値学説史 Theorien über den Mehrwert 1963
(マルクスはリカードの資本分析が間違っていると批判するがそれは深さが足りないという
意味であろう。)
ミッチェル2019はオックスフォード大学中国センターのエコノミスト、スイス銀行
返信削除コンサルタントジョージマグヌス経由でマルクス剰余価値学説史を引用している
2019#11:178でもマルクス剰余価値学説史が引用されているがブログではもっと広範囲だ
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory
2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854
We need to read Karl Marx
billTuesday, August 30, 2011
there was an interesting Bloomberg article (August 29, 2011) – Give Karl Marx a Chance to Save the World Economy – by one George Magnus, who is listed as a senior economic adviser at UBS Investment Bank.
ミッチェルが参照したマグヌスの記事は、
https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2011-08-29/give-marx-a-chance-to-save-the-world-economy-commentary-by-george-magnus 有料
邦訳
マルクスに世界経済を救うチャンスを! | Internet Zone
2011/10/18
http://ratio.sakura.ne.jp/archives/2011/10/18232418/
…
マルクスはまた、過剰生産と過少消費のパラドクスを指摘した。すなわち、貧困に落ち込む人々
が増えれば増えるほど、ますます企業が生産する財貨やサービスをすべて消費することができ
なくなるだろう。1つの企業が儲けを増やすためにコストを削減するのは賢明だが、すべての
企業がおこなえば、彼らは、自分たちが収益の基礎においている収入構造と有効需要を掘り崩し てしまう。
…
以下剰余価値学説史から
《It is only concerned with demand that is backed by ability to pay. It is not a question of absolute
over-production—over-production as such in relation to the absolute need or the desire to possess
commodities. In this sense there is neither partial nor general over-production; and the one is not
opposed to the other.》
ch.17
[9. Ricardo’s Wrong Conception of the Relation Between Production and Consumption under the Conditions of Capitalism]
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/ch17.htm
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/
《過剰生産は、
ただ、支払能力のある欲望に関係があるだけである。問題は、絶対的過剰生産~絶対的な必要または商品を手に
入れたい願望との関係における過剰生産それ自体~ではない。この意味においては、部分的過剰生産も一般的過
剰生産もともに存在しない。また、両方が互いに対立をなすこともまったくない。[マルエン全集26ii.p684]》
剰余価値学説史1863
ミッチェル2019はオックスフォード大学中国センターのエコノミスト、スイス銀行
返信削除コンサルタント、ジョージ・マグヌス経由でマルクス剰余価値学説史を引用している
2019#11:178でもマルクス剰余価値学説史が引用されているがブログではもっと広範囲だ
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory
2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854
We need to read Karl Marx
billTuesday, August 30, 2011
there was an interesting Bloomberg article (August 29, 2011) – Give Karl Marx a Chance to Save the World Economy
by one George Magnus, who is listed as a senior economic adviser at UBS Investment Bank.
ミッチェルが参照したマグヌスの記事は、
https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2011-08-29/give-marx-a-chance-to-save-the-world-economy-commentary-by-george-magnus 有料
邦訳
マルクスに世界経済を救うチャンスを! | Internet Zone
2011/10/18
http://ratio.sakura.ne.jp/archives/2011/10/18232418/
…
マルクスはまた、過剰生産と過少消費のパラドクスを指摘した。すなわち、貧困に落ち込む人々
が増えれば増えるほど、ますます企業が生産する財貨やサービスをすべて消費することができ
なくなるだろう。1つの企業が儲けを増やすためにコストを削減するのは賢明だが、すべての
企業がおこなえば、彼らは、自分たちが収益の基礎においている収入構造と有効需要を掘り崩し てしまう。
…
以下剰余価値学説史から
《It is only concerned with demand that is backed by ability to pay. It is not a question of absolute
over-production—over-production as such in relation to the absolute need or the desire to possess
commodities. In this sense there is neither partial nor general over-production; and the one is not
opposed to the other.》
ch.17
[9. Ricardo’s Wrong Conception of the Relation Between Production and Consumption under the Conditions of Capitalism]
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/ch17.htm
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/
《過剰生産は、
ただ、支払能力のある欲望に関係があるだけである。問題は、絶対的過剰生産~絶対的な必要または商品を手に
入れたい願望との関係における過剰生産それ自体~ではない。この意味においては、部分的過剰生産も一般的過
剰生産もともに存在しない。また、両方が互いに対立をなすこともまったくない。[マルエン全集26ii.p684]》
剰余価値学説史1863
ミッチェル2019はオックスフォード大学中国センターのエコノミスト、スイス銀行
返信削除コンサルタント、ジョージ・マグヌス経由でマルクス剰余価値学説史を引用している
2019#11:178でもマルクス剰余価値学説史が引用されているがブログではもっと広範囲だ
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory
2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854
We need to read Karl Marx
billTuesday, August 30, 2011
there was an interesting Bloomberg article (August 29, 2011) – Give Karl Marx a Chance to Save the World Economy
by one George Magnus, who is listed as a senior economic adviser at UBS Investment Bank.
ミッチェルが参照したマグヌスの記事は、
https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2011-08-29/give-marx-a-chance-to-save-the-world-economy-commentary-by-george-magnus 有料
邦訳
マルクスに世界経済を救うチャンスを! | Internet Zone
2011/10/18
http://ratio.sakura.ne.jp/archives/2011/10/18232418/
…
マルクスはまた、過剰生産と過少消費のパラドクスを指摘した。すなわち、貧困に落ち込む人々
が増えれば増えるほど、ますます企業が生産する財貨やサービスをすべて消費することができ
なくなるだろう。1つの企業が儲けを増やすためにコストを削減するのは賢明だが、すべての
企業がおこなえば、彼らは、自分たちが収益の基礎においている収入構造と有効需要を掘り崩してしまう。
《It is only concerned with demand that is backed by ability to pay. It is not a question of absolute
over-production—over-production as such in relation to the absolute need or the desire to possess
commodities. In this sense there is neither partial nor general over-production; and the one is not
opposed to the other.》
ch.17 [9. Ricardo’s Wrong Conception of the Relation Between Production and Consumption under the Conditions of Capitalism]
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/ch17.htm
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/
《過剰生産は、ただ、支払能力のある欲望に関係があるだけである。問題は、絶対的過剰生産~絶対的な必要または商品を手に
入れたい願望との関係における過剰生産それ自体~ではない。この意味においては、部分的過剰生産も一般的過
剰生産もともに存在しない。また、両方が互いに対立をなすこともまったくない。[マルエン全集26ii.p684]》
剰余価値学説史1863
MMT提唱者ミッチェルはオックスフォード大学中国センターのエコノミスト、スイス銀行
返信削除コンサルタント、ジョージ・マグヌス経由でマルクス剰余価値学説史を引用している
Macroeconomics 2019#11,p.178でもマルクス剰余価値学説史が引用されているがブログではもっと広範囲だ
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory
2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854
We need to read Karl Marx bill Mitchell, August 30, 2011
there was an interesting Bloomberg article (August 29, 2011) – Give Karl Marx a Chance to Save the World Economy
by one George Magnus, who is listed as a senior economic adviser at UBS Investment Bank.
ミッチェルが参照したマグヌスの記事は、
https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2011-08-29/give-marx-a-chance-to-save-the-world-economy-commentary-by-george-magnus
邦訳:マルクスに世界経済を救うチャンスを! | Internet Zone
2011/10/18
http://ratio.sakura.ne.jp/archives/2011/10/18232418/
…
マルクスはまた、過剰生産と過少消費のパラドクスを指摘した。すなわち、貧困に落ち込む人々
が増えれば増えるほど、ますます企業が生産する財貨やサービスをすべて消費することができ
なくなるだろう。1つの企業が儲けを増やすためにコストを削減するのは賢明だが、すべての
企業がおこなえば、彼らは、自分たちが収益の基礎においている収入構造と有効需要を掘り崩してしまう。
《It is only concerned with demand that is backed by ability to pay. It is not a question of absolute
over-production—over-production as such in relation to the absolute need or the desire to possess
commodities. In this sense there is neither partial nor general over-production; and the one is not
opposed to the other.》
ch.17 [9. Ricardo’s Wrong Conception of the Relation Between Production and Consumption under the Conditions of Capitalism]
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/ch17.htm
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/
《過剰生産は、ただ、支払能力のある欲望に関係があるだけである。問題は、絶対的過剰生産~絶対的な必要または商品を手に
入れたい願望との関係における過剰生産それ自体~ではない。この意味においては、部分的過剰生産も一般的過
剰生産もともに存在しない。また、両方が互いに対立をなすこともまったくない。[マルエン全集26ii.p684]》
剰余価値学説史1863
MMT提唱者ミッチェルはオックスフォード大学中国センターのエコノミスト、スイス銀行
返信削除コンサルタント、ジョージ・マグヌス経由でマルクス剰余価値学説史を引用している
Macroeconomics 2019#11,p.178でもマルクス剰余価値学説史が引用されているがブログではもっと広範囲だ
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory 2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854
We need to read Karl Marx bill Mitchell, August 30, 2011
there was an interesting Bloomberg article (August 29, 2011) – Give Karl Marx a Chance to Save the World Economy
by one George Magnus, who is listed as a senior economic adviser at UBS Investment Bank.
ミッチェルが参照したマグヌスの記事は、
https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2011-08-29/give-marx-a-chance-to-save-the-world-economy-commentary-by-george-magnus
邦訳:マルクスに世界経済を救うチャンスを! | Internet Zone 2011/10/18
http://ratio.sakura.ne.jp/archives/2011/10/18232418/
…
マルクスはまた、過剰生産と過少消費のパラドクスを指摘した。すなわち、貧困に落ち込む人々
が増えれば増えるほど、ますます企業が生産する財貨やサービスをすべて消費することができ
なくなるだろう。1つの企業が儲けを増やすためにコストを削減するのは賢明だが、すべての
企業がおこなえば、彼らは、自分たちが収益の基礎においている収入構造と有効需要を掘り崩してしまう。
《It is only concerned with demand that is backed by ability to pay. It is not a question of absolute
over-production—over-production as such in relation to the absolute need or the desire to possess
commodities. In this sense there is neither partial nor general over-production; and the one is not
opposed to the other.》
ch.17 [9. Ricardo’s Wrong Conception of the Relation Between Production and Consumption under the Conditions of Capitalism]
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/ch17.htm
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/
《過剰生産は、ただ、支払能力のある欲望に関係があるだけである。問題は、絶対的過剰生産~絶対的な必要または商品を手に
入れたい願望との関係における過剰生産それ自体~ではない。この意味においては、部分的過剰生産も一般的過
剰生産もともに存在しない。また、両方が互いに対立をなすこともまったくない。[マルエン全集26ii.p684]》
剰余価値学説史1863
MMT提唱者ミッチェルはオックスフォード大学中国センターのエコノミスト、スイス銀行
返信削除コンサルタント、ジョージ・マグヌス経由でマルクス剰余価値学説史を引用している
Macroeconomics 2019#11,p.178でもマルクス剰余価値学説史が引用されているがブログではもっと広範囲だ
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory 2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854
We need to read Karl Marx bill Mitchell, August 30, 2011
there was an interesting Bloomberg article (August 29, 2011) – Give Karl Marx a Chance to Save the World Economy
by one George Magnus, who is listed as a senior economic adviser at UBS Investment Bank.
ミッチェルが参照したマグヌスの記事は、
https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2011-08-29/give-marx-a-chance-to-save-the-world-economy-commentary-by-george-magnus
邦訳:マルクスに世界経済を救うチャンスを! | Internet Zone 2011/10/18
http://ratio.sakura.ne.jp/archives/2011/10/18232418/
…
マルクスはまた、過剰生産と過少消費のパラドクスを指摘した。すなわち、貧困に落ち込む人々
が増えれば増えるほど、ますます企業が生産する財貨やサービスをすべて消費することができ
なくなるだろう。1つの企業が儲けを増やすためにコストを削減するのは賢明だが、すべての
企業がおこなえば、彼らは、自分たちが収益の基礎においている収入構造と有効需要を掘り崩してしまう。
《It is only concerned with demand that is backed by ability to pay. It is not a question of absolute
over-production—over-production as such in relation to the absolute need or the desire to possess
commodities. In this sense there is neither partial nor general over-production; and the one is not
opposed to the other.》
ch.17 [9. Ricardo’s Wrong Conception of the Relation Between Production and Consumption under the Conditions of Capitalism]
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/ch17.htm
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/
《過剰生産は、ただ、支払能力のある欲望に関係があるだけである。問題は、絶対的過剰生産~絶対的な必要または
商品を手に入れたい願望との関係における過剰生産それ自体~ではない。この意味においては、部分的過剰生産も一般的過
剰生産もともに存在しない。また、両方が互いに対立をなすこともまったくない。[マルエン全集26ii.p684]》剰余価値学説史1863
Blogger yoji さんは書きました...
返信削除MMT提唱者ミッチェルはオックスフォード大学中国センターのエコノミスト、スイス銀行
コンサルタント、ジョージ・マグヌス経由でマルクス剰余価値学説史を引用している
Macroeconomics 2019#11,p.178でもマルクス剰余価値学説史が引用されているがブログではもっと広範囲だ
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory 2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854
We need to read Karl Marx bill Mitchell, August 30, 2011
there was an interesting Bloomberg article (August 29, 2011) – Give Karl Marx a Chance to Save the World Economy
by one George Magnus, who is listed as a senior economic adviser at UBS Investment Bank.
ミッチェルが参照したマグヌスの記事は、
https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2011-08-29/give-marx-a-chance-to-save-the-world-economy-commentary-by-george-magnus
邦訳:マルクスに世界経済を救うチャンスを! | Internet Zone 2011/10/18
http://ratio.sakura.ne.jp/archives/2011/10/18232418/
…
マルクスはまた、過剰生産と過少消費のパラドクスを指摘した。すなわち、貧困に落ち込む人々
が増えれば増えるほど、ますます企業が生産する財貨やサービスをすべて消費することができ
なくなるだろう。1つの企業が儲けを増やすためにコストを削減するのは賢明だが、すべての
企業がおこなえば、彼らは、自分たちが収益の基礎においている収入構造と有効需要を掘り崩してしまう。
以下剰余価値学説史から、
《It is only concerned with demand that is backed by ability to pay. It is not a question of absolute
over-production—over-production as such in relation to the absolute need or the desire to possess
commodities. In this sense there is neither partial nor general over-production; and the one is not
opposed to the other.》
ch.17 [9. Ricardo’s Wrong Conception of the Relation Between Production and Consumption under the Conditions of Capitalism]
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/ch17.htm
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/
《過剰生産は、ただ、支払能力のある欲望に関係があるだけである。問題は、絶対的過剰生産~絶対的な必要または
商品を手に入れたい願望との関係における過剰生産それ自体~ではない。この意味においては、部分的過剰生産も一般的過
剰生産もともに存在しない。また、両方が互いに対立をなすこともまったくない。[マルエン全集26ii.p684]》剰余価値学説史1863
Blogger yoji さんは書きました...
返信削除MMT提唱者ミッチェルはオックスフォード大学中国センターのエコノミスト、スイス銀行
コンサルタント、ジョージ・マグヌス経由でマルクス剰余価値学説史を引用している
Macroeconomics 2019#11,p.178でもマルクス剰余価値学説史が引用されているがブログではもっと広範囲だ
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory 2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854
We need to read Karl Marx bill Mitchell, August 30, 2011
there was an interesting Bloomberg article (August 29, 2011) – Give Karl Marx a Chance to Save the World Economy
by one George Magnus, who is listed as a senior economic adviser at UBS Investment Bank.
ミッチェルが参照したマグヌスの記事は、
https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2011-08-29/give-marx-a-chance-to-save-the-world-economy-commentary-by-george-magnus
邦訳:マルクスに世界経済を救うチャンスを! Internet Zone 2011/10/18
http://ratio.sakura.ne.jp/archives/2011/10/18232418/
…
マルクスはまた、過剰生産と過少消費のパラドクスを指摘した。すなわち、貧困に落ち込む人々
が増えれば増えるほど、ますます企業が生産する財貨やサービスをすべて消費することができ
なくなるだろう。1つの企業が儲けを増やすためにコストを削減するのは賢明だが、すべての
企業がおこなえば、彼らは、自分たちが収益の基礎においている収入構造と有効需要を掘り崩してしまう。
以下剰余価値学説史から、
《It is only concerned with demand that is backed by ability to pay. It is not a question of absolute
over-production—over-production as such in relation to the absolute need or the desire to possess
commodities. In this sense there is neither partial nor general over-production; and the one is not
opposed to the other.》
ch.17 [9. Ricardo’s Wrong Conception of the Relation Between Production and Consumption…]
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/ch17.htm
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/
《過剰生産は、ただ、支払能力のある欲望に関係があるだけである。問題は、絶対的過剰生産~絶対的な必要または商品
を手に入れたい願望との関係における過剰生産それ自体~ではない。この意味においては、部分的過剰生産も一般的過剰
生産もともに存在しない。また、両方が互いに対立をなすこともまったくない。[マルエン全集26ii.p684]》剰余価値学説史1863
返信削除MMT提唱者ミッチェルはオックスフォード大学中国センターのエコノミスト、スイス銀行
コンサルタント、ジョージ・マグヌス経由でマルクス剰余価値学説史を引用している
Macroeconomics 2019#11,p.178でもマルクス剰余価値学説史が引用されているがブログではもっと広範囲だ
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory 2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854
We need to read Karl Marx bill Mitchell, August 30, 2011
there was an interesting Bloomberg article (August 29, 2011) – Give Karl Marx a Chance to Save the World Economy
by one George Magnus, who is listed as a senior economic adviser at UBS Investment Bank.
ミッチェルが参照したマグヌスの記事は、
https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2011-08-29/give-marx-a-chance-to-save-the-world-economy-commentary-by-george-magnus
邦訳:マルクスに世界経済を救うチャンスを! Internet Zone 2011/10/18
http://ratio.sakura.ne.jp/archives/2011/10/18232418/
…
マルクスはまた、過剰生産と過少消費のパラドクスを指摘した。すなわち、貧困に落ち込む人々
が増えれば増えるほど、ますます企業が生産する財貨やサービスをすべて消費することができ
なくなるだろう。1つの企業が儲けを増やすためにコストを削減するのは賢明だが、すべての
企業がおこなえば、彼らは、自分たちが収益の基礎においている収入構造と有効需要を掘り崩してしまう。
以下剰余価値学説史から、
《It is only concerned with demand that is backed by ability to pay. It is not a question of absolute
over-production—over-production as such in relation to the absolute need or the desire to possess
commodities. In this sense there is neither partial nor general over-production; and the one is not
opposed to the other.》
ch.17 [9. Ricardo’s Wrong Conception of the Relation Between Production and Consumption…]
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/ch17.htm
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/
《過剰生産は、ただ、支払能力のある欲望に関係があるだけである。問題は、絶対的過剰生産~絶対的な必要または商
品を手に入れたい願望との関係における過剰生産それ自体~ではない。この意味においては、部分的過剰生産も一般的
過剰生産もともに存在しない。また、両方が互いに対立をなすこともまったくない。[マルエン全集26ii.p684]》
剰余価値学説史1863
返信削除MMT提唱者ミッチェルはオックスフォード大学中国センターのエコノミスト、スイス銀行
コンサルタント、ジョージ・マグヌス経由でマルクス剰余価値学説史を引用している
Macroeconomics 2019#11,p.178でもマルクス剰余価値学説史が引用されているがブログではもっと広範囲だ
We need to read Karl Marx – Bill Mitchell – Modern Monetary Theory 2011/8/30
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=15854
We need to read Karl Marx bill Mitchell, August 30, 2011
Give Karl Marx a Chance to Save the World Economy by one George Magnus, who is listed as a senior economic adviser at UBS Investment Bank.
ミッチェルが参照したマグヌスの記事は、
https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2011-08-29/give-marx-a-chance-to-save-the-world-economy-commentary-by-george-magnus
邦訳:マルクスに世界経済を救うチャンスを! Internet Zone 2011/10/18
http://ratio.sakura.ne.jp/archives/2011/10/18232418/
…
マルクスはまた、過剰生産と過少消費のパラドクスを指摘した。すなわち、貧困に落ち込む人々
が増えれば増えるほど、ますます企業が生産する財貨やサービスをすべて消費することができ
なくなるだろう。1つの企業が儲けを増やすためにコストを削減するのは賢明だが、すべての
企業がおこなえば、彼らは、自分たちが収益の基礎においている収入構造と有効需要を掘り崩してしまう。
以下剰余価値学説史から、
《It is only concerned with demand that is backed by ability to pay. It is not a question of absolute
over-production—over-production as such in relation to the absolute need or the desire to possess
commodities. In this sense there is neither partial nor general over-production; and the one is not
opposed to the other.》
ch.17 [9. Ricardo’s Wrong Conception of the Relation Between Production and Consumption…]
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/ch17.htm
《過剰生産は、ただ、支払能力のある欲望に関係があるだけである。問題は、絶対的過剰生産~絶対的な必要または商
品を手に入れたい願望との関係における過剰生産それ自体~ではない。この意味においては、部分的過剰生産も一般的
過剰生産もともに存在しない。また、両方が互いに対立をなすこともまったくない。[マルエン全集26ii.p684]》
剰余価値学説史1863