2.4 Why is it so Difficult to Come to an Agreement on Policy?
The Minimum Wage Debate
In the previous section, we explored some of the stylised facts and noted that these are things that economic theory ought to be able to explain. In this section, we turn to an example of a policy debate: the minimum wage.
Many countries have legislated minimum wages that are periodically raised. Each time policymakers examine the case for raising the minimum, economists are paraded to predict disastrous consequences for employment should wages be raised. Most of these economists dishonestly proclaim that economic theory reaches a decisive conclusion: minimum wages cause unemployment. In truth, economic theory gives (at least) two answers to the question of the effect of raising minimum wages on unemployment.
1. Raising wages increases business costs that beyond some point will increase the price of output. If we hold the income and purchasing power of consumers constant, it would seem that the higher prices must lead to fewer sales, and hence to lower employment. (There are other effects that could strengthen this impact, such as higher imports from abroad where labour is cheaper, and also substitution of machines for labour whose price has gone up.) Thus, neoliberals argue that raising the minimum wage must lead to higher unemployment.
2. Not so fast, says our two-armed economist. If wages rise, then it is not necessarily true that consumer income and hence purchasing power is constant. After all, most consumption is financed by wages, and the incomes of those employed at the lowest wages have increased. Those workers buy more goods and services. Firms which sell these goods and services might decide to hire more workers. Those workers buy more, too. If some employers decide that at the higher minimum wage they prefer to buy robotic machines to replace workers, that means more jobs making machines. We cannot say for sure that the net result of this complex chain reaction will be more jobs or fewer jobs.
So any two-armed economist will admit that economic theory cannot provide a decisive answer.
The frustrated student (and policymaker) asks ‘But why can’t we just look at real world evidence to settle the question?’ Economists do of course try to do just that, and the tool of choice is econometrics. We can look at a number of cases where minimum wages have been raised. In the USA, for example, the 50 US states have their own minimum wage laws so it is possible to compare employment effects in one state when the minimum wage is raised while it is held constant in a neighbouring state with otherwise similar conditions. What the most careful studies in the USA find is that raising wages does not tend to reduce employment and raise unemployment; indeed it looks like the correlation goes the other way, with employment rising.
Does that settle the case? No. Even leaving aside clearly ideologically biased claims by opponents of minimum wage hikes, such empirical studies cannot be decisive. Even the most carefully designed tests cannot control for all possible factors that might affect employment. We cannot be sure that raising wages was what caused employment to rise. There could well be an uncontrolled factor that coincidentally increased employment (and indeed may have done so even if the wage hike by itself would have actually reduced the number employed).
Economists are well aware of this conundrum: empirical correlation never proves causation. Causation itself is a deeply complex topic. While we can put together theory and models and data to make a case, we probably will not be able to prove that ‘X causes Y’ when it comes to the most significant questions in economics. John Maynard Keynes argued that the best one can do is to convince by the weight of one’s argument. Certainly, one needs theory and probably evidence, maybe even a mathematical model, but even that will not convince an opponent unless the case is made through persuasive argument. Keynes was a master of argument, but even he did not always win. More recently Deirdre McCloskey made a similar claim in her book The Rhetoric of Economics (1985). Her point is that evidence alone is not decisive; ‘rhetoric’, the art of discourse, is also important. If proof is difficult and theory provides ambiguous answers, can economics make progress? In the final section we address this question.
経済学者はこの難問をよく知っています:経験的相関は因果関係を証明することはありません。因果関係自体は非常に複雑なトピックです。理論、モデル、データをまとめて主張することはできますが、経済学で最も重要な問題になると、「XがYを引き起こす」ことを証明することはできないでしょう。ジョンメイナードケインズは、自分ができる最善のことは自分の主張の重みで納得させることだと主張した。確かに、理論とおそらく証拠、おそらく数学的モデルさえも必要としますが、それでも説得力のある議論を通してなされない限りそれは相手を納得させません。ケインズは議論の達人でしたが、彼でさえも勝つとは限りませんでした。もっと最近では、Deirdre McCloskeyは彼女の著書The Rhetoric of Economics(1985)にも同様の主張をした。彼女の論点は証拠だけでは決定的ではないということです。談話の芸術である「修辞学」も重要です。証明が難しく理論があいまいな答えを提供するならば、経済学は進歩することができるか?最後のセクションで、この質問に取り組みます。
・ラーナー源流の自動運転自動車の比喩↓ Lerner 1951 The Economics of Employment, 1951 (Lerner, A. 1941. The economic steering wheel. University Review, June, 2-8.の改訂版再録) 雇用の経済学 (1965年) (現代経済学名著選集〈第12 明治大学経済学研究会編〉) Kelton 2003 Common currency lessons from Europe Have member states forsaken their economic steering wheels? Stephanie Bell (Dollarization: Lessons from Europe for the Americasに所収) https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=3LSAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA70&dq=The+economic+steering+wheel+271&hl =ja&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj1_K6x7ufiAhUafd4KHRZbAgoQ6AEIMjAD#v=onepage&q= The%20economic%20steering%20wheel%20271&f=false Mitchell 2009 http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=5762
・ミッチェルも新著2019#14:213で紹介した100匹の犬と95本の骨↓ http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=22583 2013 http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=1868 2009 #14:213 “The tale of 100 dogs and 95 bones”(&5:69) “The tale of 100 dogs and 95 bones”(&5:69) Warren Mosler MMT: Unemployment, dogs and bones. https://youtu.be/2vTjLwYCi24 http://www.fullemployment.net/archive.php
・ケルトンのハトでも鷹でもないフクロウ↓ Stephanie Kelton: What Is A Deficit Owl 2016 https://youtube.com/watch?v=IW-VapeCUco https://i.gyazo.com/6810b0aaf386adbc583e605639c21a17.jpg Stephanie Kelton's MMT Coloring Book 2013 https://youtu.be/oLntiX4AeWc 1:14 https://www.washingtonpost.com/rf/image_982w/2010-2019/WashingtonPost/2012/02/17/Business/Graphics/w-mmt2.jpg?t=20170517a https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-8c3Bl6fYgeM/XQ36TY1acHI/AAAAAAABku4/tNgCuPV6ry4MFQe-C8YeVPvCaeOFTKlzwCLcBGAs/s1600/IMG_1481.PNG https://www.washingtonpost.com/mainstream-economics-and-modern-monetary-theory-a-family-tree/2012/02/17/gIQAiy6RKR_graphic.html?utm_term=.780cbb19ebe0
Keynes was a master of argument, but even he did not always win. More recently Deirdre McCloskey made a similar claim in her book The Rhetoric of Economics (1985). Her point is that evidence alone is not decisive; ‘rhetoric’, the art of discourse, is also important. (Mitchell 2019 #2:32)
・ラーナー源流の自動運転自動車の比喩↓ Lerner 1951 The Economics of Employment, 1951 (Lerner, A. 1941. The economic steering wheel. University Review, June, 2-8.の改訂版再録) 雇用の経済学 (1965年) (現代経済学名著選集〈第12 明治大学経済学研究会編〉) Kelton 2003 Common currency lessons from Europe Have member states forsaken their economic steering wheels? Stephanie Bell (Dollarization: Lessons from Europe for the Americasに所収) https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=3LSAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA70&dq=The+economic+steering+wheel+271&hl =ja&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj1_K6x7ufiAhUafd4KHRZbAgoQ6AEIMjAD#v=onepage&q= The%20economic%20steering%20wheel%20271&f=false Mitchell 2009 http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=5762
・ミッチェルも新著2019#14:213で紹介した100匹の犬と95本の骨↓ http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=22583 2013 http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=1868 2009 #14:213 “The tale of 100 dogs and 95 bones”(&5:69) “The tale of 100 dogs and 95 bones”(&5:69) Warren Mosler MMT: Unemployment, dogs and bones. https://youtu.be/2vTjLwYCi24 http://www.fullemployment.net/archive.php
・ケルトンのハトでも鷹でもないフクロウ↓ Stephanie Kelton: What Is A Deficit Owl 2016 https://youtube.com/watch?v=IW-VapeCUco https://i.gyazo.com/6810b0aaf386adbc583e605639c21a17.jpg Stephanie Kelton's MMT Coloring Book 2013 https://youtu.be/oLntiX4AeWc 1:14 https://www.washingtonpost.com/rf/image_982w/2010-2019/WashingtonPost/2012/02/17/Business/Graphics/w-mmt2.jpg?t=20170517a https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-8c3Bl6fYgeM/XQ36TY1acHI/AAAAAAABku4/tNgCuPV6ry4MFQe-C8YeVPvCaeOFTKlzwCLcBGAs/s1600/IMG_1481.PNG https://www.washingtonpost.com/mainstream-economics-and-modern-monetary-theory-a-family-tree/2012/02/17/gIQAiy6RKR_graphic.html?utm_term=.780cbb19ebe0
Keynes was a master of argument, but even he did not always win. More recently Deirdre McCloskey made a similar claim in her book The Rhetoric of Economics (1985). Her point is that evidence alone is not decisive; ‘rhetoric’, the art of discourse, is also important. (Mitchell 2019 #2:32)
《…Keynes was a master of argument, but even he did not always win. More recently Deirdre McCloskey made a similar claim in her book The Rhetoric of Economics (1985). Her point is that evidence alone is not decisive; ‘rhetoric’, the art of discourse, is also important.》 (Mitchell 2019 #2:32)
7 Comments:
MMTerは比喩を駆使する
・ラーナー源流の自動運転自動車の比喩↓
Lerner 1951
The Economics of Employment, 1951
(Lerner, A. 1941. The economic steering wheel. University Review, June, 2-8.の改訂版再録)
雇用の経済学 (1965年) (現代経済学名著選集〈第12 明治大学経済学研究会編〉)
Kelton 2003
Common currency lessons from Europe
Have member states forsaken their economic steering wheels? Stephanie Bell
(Dollarization: Lessons from Europe for the Americasに所収)
https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=3LSAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA70&dq=The+economic+steering+wheel+271&hl
=ja&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj1_K6x7ufiAhUafd4KHRZbAgoQ6AEIMjAD#v=onepage&q=
The%20economic%20steering%20wheel%20271&f=false
Mitchell 2009
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=5762
・レイに始まるバスタブ、シンク↓
Wray2012#1.3
http://econdays.net/?p=9980
Kelton's responce
https://video.twimg.com/ext_tw_video/1133002891201933313/pu/vid/1280x720/WhePUmi_ZpvaVkpH.mp4
https://youtu.be/mYVaR2g0M_0
・ミッチェルも新著2019#14:213で紹介した100匹の犬と95本の骨↓
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=22583 2013
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=1868 2009
#14:213 “The tale of 100 dogs and 95 bones”(&5:69)
“The tale of 100 dogs and 95 bones”(&5:69)
Warren Mosler MMT: Unemployment, dogs and bones.
https://youtu.be/2vTjLwYCi24
http://www.fullemployment.net/archive.php
・ケルトンのハトでも鷹でもないフクロウ↓
Stephanie Kelton: What Is A Deficit Owl 2016
https://youtube.com/watch?v=IW-VapeCUco
https://i.gyazo.com/6810b0aaf386adbc583e605639c21a17.jpg
Stephanie Kelton's MMT Coloring Book 2013
https://youtu.be/oLntiX4AeWc 1:14
https://www.washingtonpost.com/rf/image_982w/2010-2019/WashingtonPost/2012/02/17/Business/Graphics/w-mmt2.jpg?t=20170517a
https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-8c3Bl6fYgeM/XQ36TY1acHI/AAAAAAABku4/tNgCuPV6ry4MFQe-C8YeVPvCaeOFTKlzwCLcBGAs/s1600/IMG_1481.PNG
https://www.washingtonpost.com/mainstream-economics-and-modern-monetary-theory-a-family-tree/2012/02/17/gIQAiy6RKR_graphic.html?utm_term=.780cbb19ebe0
Keynes was a master of argument, but even he did not always win. More recently
Deirdre McCloskey made a similar claim in her book The Rhetoric of Economics (1985).
Her point is that evidence alone is not decisive; ‘rhetoric’, the art of discourse, is also important.
(Mitchell 2019 #2:32)
MMTerは比喩を駆使する:ミッチェル2019(ラーナー機能的財政の基本的な諸関係を改変)
______ https://youtu.be/oLntiX4AeWc
| |・フクロウの比喩(第三の道)☆
| 政策 |[E]20~24https://imgur.com/gallery/7e5lu7a
|______|・自動運転ハンドル(さらに金融緩和アクセル、
___|________消費税ブレーキ)といった自動車の比喩
/ \https://i.imgur.com/n46u8JB.jpg
/ \[D]17~19
/ E非雇用 \https://imgur.com/gallery/Ffs6WRD
/ /雇用 \・95本の骨/100匹の犬の比喩☆
/____________________\https://youtu.be/2vTjLwYCi24
| Y所得 |[C]11~16
|____________________|
| | | I投資 |
|C(Y) |______________|・投資=もう一本の蛇口?
|消費 | |I(i) | i利子率 |
|性向 | |投資 | |_______|
| | |機会 | |i | |M |[B] 9~10
|___| |___| (M,Y) |貨幣|・バスタブ、シンクの比喩
([A]) [F] 流動性選好 https://youtu.be/mYVaR2g0M_0
25~26 /
/
歴史[A]1~8, [G]27~30, [H]31~33現状,未来
☆はMitchell2019で紹介
ラーナー『雇用の経済学』#8のレンガの家の比喩をベースにした
https://i.gyazo.com/143564bc8c2461751cf8010cc481182b.jpg
ラーナーは投資と消費で2系統の循環ポンプをイメージしている
https://i.gyazo.com/3eb430b52f54d265597af06cdc119ea5.png
雇用の経済学より
天気予報と経済予測は似ている(グッドウィンを参照)
キーン 金融危機 https://i.gyazo.com/5f6aacb82fbe6e84a2bfab7e673524de.png
ローレンツ バタフライ効果 https://i.gyazo.com/0aacdca901526b03569b78447888c335.png
MMTerは比喩を駆使する:
______ https://youtu.be/oLntiX4AeWc
| |・フクロウの比喩(第三の道)☆
| 政策 |[E]20~24https://imgur.com/gallery/7e5lu7a
|______|・自動運転ハンドル(さらに金融緩和アクセル、
___|________消費税ブレーキ)といった自動車の比喩
/ \https://i.imgur.com/n46u8JB.jpg
/ \[D]17~19
/ E非雇用 \https://imgur.com/gallery/Ffs6WRD
/ /雇用 \・95本の骨/100匹の犬の比喩☆
/____________________\https://youtu.be/2vTjLwYCi24
| Y所得 |[C]11~16
|____________________|
| | | I投資 |
|C(Y) |______________|・投資=もう一本の蛇口?
|消費 | |I(i) | i利子率 |
|性向 | |投資 | |_______|
| | |機会 | |i | |M |[B] 9~10
|___| |___| (M,Y) |貨幣|・バスタブ、シンクの比喩
([A]) [F] 流動性選好 https://youtu.be/mYVaR2g0M_0
25~26 /
/
歴史[A]1~8, [G]27~30, [H]31~33現状,未来
☆はMitchell2019で紹介
ラーナー『雇用の経済学』#8のレンガの家の比喩をベースにした
https://i.gyazo.com/143564bc8c2461751cf8010cc481182b.jpg
ラーナー(『雇用の経済学』)は投資と消費で2系統の循環ポンプをイメージしている
https://i.gyazo.com/3eb430b52f54d265597af06cdc119ea5.png
天気予報と経済予測は似ている(グッドウィンを参照)
キーン 金融危機 https://i.gyazo.com/5f6aacb82fbe6e84a2bfab7e673524de.png
ローレンツ バタフライ効果 https://i.gyazo.com/0aacdca901526b03569b78447888c335.png
MMTerは比喩を駆使する:
______ https://youtu.be/oLntiX4AeWc
| |・フクロウの比喩(第三の道)☆
| 政策 |[E]20~24
|______|・自動運転ハンドル(さらに金融緩和アクセル、
___|________消費税ブレーキ)といった自動車の比喩
/ \https://i.imgur.com/n46u8JB.jpg
/ \[D]17~19
/ E非雇用 \https://imgur.com/gallery/Ffs6WRD
/ /雇用 \・95本の骨/100匹の犬の比喩☆
/____________________\https://youtu.be/2vTjLwYCi24
| Y所得 |[C]11~16
|____________________|
| | | I投資 |
|C(Y) |______________|・投資=もう一本の蛇口?
|消費 | |I(i) | i利子率 |
|性向 | |投資 | |_______|
| | |機会 | |i | |M |[B] 9~10
|___| |___| (M,Y) |貨幣|・バスタブ、シンクの比喩
([A]) [F] 流動性選好 https://youtu.be/mYVaR2g0M_0
25~26 /
/
歴史[A]1~8, [G]27~30, [H]31~33現状,未来
☆はMitchell2019で紹介
ラーナー『雇用の経済学』#8のレンガの家の比喩をベースにした
https://i.gyazo.com/143564bc8c2461751cf8010cc481182b.jpg
ラーナー(『雇用の経済学』)は投資と消費で2系統の循環ポンプをイメージしている
https://i.gyazo.com/3eb430b52f54d265597af06cdc119ea5.png
天気予報と経済予測は似ている(グッドウィンを参照)
キーン 金融危機 https://i.gyazo.com/5f6aacb82fbe6e84a2bfab7e673524de.png
ローレンツ バタフライ効果 https://i.gyazo.com/0aacdca901526b03569b78447888c335.png
MMTerは比喩を駆使する
・ラーナー源流の自動運転自動車の比喩↓
Lerner 1951
The Economics of Employment, 1951
(Lerner, A. 1941. The economic steering wheel. University Review, June, 2-8.の改訂版再録)
雇用の経済学 (1965年) (現代経済学名著選集〈第12 明治大学経済学研究会編〉)
Kelton 2003
Common currency lessons from Europe
Have member states forsaken their economic steering wheels? Stephanie Bell
(Dollarization: Lessons from Europe for the Americasに所収)
https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=3LSAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA70&dq=The+economic+steering+wheel+271&hl
=ja&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj1_K6x7ufiAhUafd4KHRZbAgoQ6AEIMjAD#v=onepage&q=
The%20economic%20steering%20wheel%20271&f=false
Mitchell 2009
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=5762
・レイに始まるバスタブ、シンク↓
Wray2012#1.3
http://econdays.net/?p=9980
Kelton's responce
https://video.twimg.com/ext_tw_video/1133002891201933313/pu/vid/1280x720/WhePUmi_ZpvaVkpH.mp4
https://youtu.be/mYVaR2g0M_0
・ミッチェルも新著2019#14:213で紹介した100匹の犬と95本の骨↓
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=22583 2013
http://bilbo.economicoutlook.net/blog/?p=1868 2009
#14:213 “The tale of 100 dogs and 95 bones”(&5:69)
“The tale of 100 dogs and 95 bones”(&5:69)
Warren Mosler MMT: Unemployment, dogs and bones.
https://youtu.be/2vTjLwYCi24
http://www.fullemployment.net/archive.php
・ケルトンのハトでも鷹でもないフクロウ↓
Stephanie Kelton: What Is A Deficit Owl 2016
https://youtube.com/watch?v=IW-VapeCUco
https://i.gyazo.com/6810b0aaf386adbc583e605639c21a17.jpg
Stephanie Kelton's MMT Coloring Book 2013
https://youtu.be/oLntiX4AeWc 1:14
https://www.washingtonpost.com/rf/image_982w/2010-2019/WashingtonPost/2012/02/17/Business/Graphics/w-mmt2.jpg?t=20170517a
https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-8c3Bl6fYgeM/XQ36TY1acHI/AAAAAAABku4/tNgCuPV6ry4MFQe-C8YeVPvCaeOFTKlzwCLcBGAs/s1600/IMG_1481.PNG
https://www.washingtonpost.com/mainstream-economics-and-modern-monetary-theory-a-family-tree/2012/02/17/gIQAiy6RKR_graphic.html?utm_term=.780cbb19ebe0
MMTerは比喩を駆使する:
______ https://youtu.be/oLntiX4AeWc
| |・フクロウの比喩(第三の道)☆
| 政策 |[E]20~24
|______|・自動運転ハンドル(さらに金融緩和アクセル、
___|________消費税ブレーキ)といった自動車の比喩
/ \https://i.imgur.com/n46u8JB.jpg
/ \[D]17~19
/ E非雇用 \https://imgur.com/gallery/Ffs6WRD
/ /雇用 \・95本の骨/100匹の犬の比喩☆
/____________________\https://youtu.be/2vTjLwYCi24
| Y所得 |[C]11~16
|____________________|
| | | I投資 |
|C(Y) |______________|・投資=もう一本の蛇口?
|消費 | |I(i) | i利子率 |
|性向 | |投資 | |_______|
| | |機会 | |i | |M |[B] 9~10
|___| |___| (M,Y) |貨幣|・バスタブ、シンクの比喩
([A]) [F] 流動性選好 https://youtu.be/mYVaR2g0M_0
25~26 /
/
歴史[A]1~8, [G]27~30, [H]31~33現状,未来
☆はMitchell2019で紹介
ラーナー『雇用の経済学』#8のレンガの家の比喩をベースにした
https://i.gyazo.com/143564bc8c2461751cf8010cc481182b.jpg
ラーナー(『雇用の経済学』)は投資と消費で2系統の循環ポンプをイメージしている
https://i.gyazo.com/3eb430b52f54d265597af06cdc119ea5.png
天気予報と経済予測は似ている(グッドウィンを参照)
キーン 金融危機 https://i.gyazo.com/5f6aacb82fbe6e84a2bfab7e673524de.png
ローレンツ バタフライ効果 https://i.gyazo.com/0aacdca901526b03569b78447888c335.png
Keynes was a master of argument, but even he did not always win. More recently
Deirdre McCloskey made a similar claim in her book The Rhetoric of Economics (1985).
Her point is that evidence alone is not decisive; ‘rhetoric’, the art of discourse, is also important.
(Mitchell 2019 #2:32)
MMTerは比喩を駆使する:
______ https://youtu.be/oLntiX4AeWc
| |・フクロウの比喩(第三の道)☆
| 政策 |[E]20~24
|______|・自動運転ハンドル(さらに金融緩和アクセル、
___|________消費税ブレーキ)といった自動車の比喩
/ \https://i.imgur.com/n46u8JB.jpg
/ \[D]17~19
/ E非雇用 \https://imgur.com/gallery/Ffs6WRD
/ /雇用 \・95本の骨/100匹の犬の比喩☆
/____________________\https://youtu.be/2vTjLwYCi24
| Y所得 |[C]11~16
|____________________|
| | | I投資 |
|C(Y) |______________|・投資=もう一本の蛇口?
|消費 | |I(i) | i利子率 |
|性向 | |投資 | |_______|
| | |機会 | |i | |M |[B] 9~10
|___| |___| (M,Y) |貨幣|・バスタブ、シンクの比喩
([A]) [F] 流動性選好 https://youtu.be/mYVaR2g0M_0
25~26 /
/
歴史[A]1~8, [G]27~30, [H]31~33現状,未来
☆はMitchell2019で紹介
ラーナー(『雇用の経済学』#8)のレンガの家の比喩をベースにした
https://i.gyazo.com/143564bc8c2461751cf8010cc481182b.jpg
ラーナー(同#4)は投資と消費で2系統の循環ポンプをイメージしている
https://i.gyazo.com/3eb430b52f54d265597af06cdc119ea5.png
天気予報と経済予測は似ている(グッドウィンを参照)
キーン 金融危機 https://i.gyazo.com/5f6aacb82fbe6e84a2bfab7e673524de.png
ローレンツ バタフライ効果 https://i.gyazo.com/0aacdca901526b03569b78447888c335.png
MMTerは比喩を駆使する:
______ https://youtu.be/oLntiX4AeWc
| |・フクロウの比喩(第三の道)☆
| 政策 |[E]20~24
|______|・自動運転ハンドル(さらに金融緩和アクセル、
___|________消費税ブレーキ)といった自動車の比喩
/ \https://i.imgur.com/n46u8JB.jpg
/ \[D]17~19
/ E非雇用 \https://imgur.com/gallery/Ffs6WRD
/ /雇用 \・95本の骨/100匹の犬の比喩☆
/____________________\https://youtu.be/2vTjLwYCi24
| Y所得 |[C]11~16
|____________________|
| | | I投資 |
|C(Y) |______________|・投資=もう一本の蛇口?
|消費 | |I(i) | i利子率 |
|性向 | |投資 | |_______|
| | |機会 | |i | |M |[B] 9~10
|___| |___| (M,Y) |貨幣|・バスタブ、シンクの比喩
([A]) [F] 流動性選好 https://youtu.be/mYVaR2g0M_0
25~26 /
/
歴史[A]1~8, [G]27~30, [H]31~33現状,未来
☆はMitchell2019で紹介
ラーナー(『雇用の経済学』#8)のレンガの家の比喩をベースにした
https://i.gyazo.com/143564bc8c2461751cf8010cc481182b.jpg
ラーナー(同#4)は投資と消費で2系統の循環ポンプをイメージしている
https://i.gyazo.com/3eb430b52f54d265597af06cdc119ea5.png
天気予報と経済予測は似ている(グッドウィンを参照)
キーン 金融危機 https://i.gyazo.com/5f6aacb82fbe6e84a2bfab7e673524de.png
ローレンツ バタフライ効果 https://i.gyazo.com/0aacdca901526b03569b78447888c335.png
《…Keynes was a master of argument, but even he did not always win. More recently
Deirdre McCloskey made a similar claim in her book The Rhetoric of Economics (1985).
Her point is that evidence alone is not decisive; ‘rhetoric’, the art of discourse, is also important.》
(Mitchell 2019 #2:32)
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