Auctions are characterized as transactions with a specific set of rules detailing resource allocation according to participants' bids. They are categorized as games with incomplete information because in the vast majority of auctions, one party will possess information related to the transaction that the other party does not (e.g., the bidders usually know their personal valuation of the item, which is unknown to the other bidders and the seller).[1] Auctions take many forms, but they share the characteristic that they are universaland can be used to sell or buy any item. In many cases, the outcome of the auction does not depend on the identity of the bidders (i.e., auctions are anonymous)[citation needed].
Most auctions have the feature that participants submit bids, amounts of money they are willing to pay. Standard auctions require that the winner of the auction is the participant with the highest bid. A nonstandard auction does not require this (e.g., a lottery).
There are traditionally four types of auction that are used for the allocation of a single item:
- First-price sealed-bid auctions in which bidders place their bid in a sealed envelope and simultaneously hand them to the auctioneer. The envelopes are opened and the individual with the highest bid wins, paying the amount bid.
- Second-price sealed-bid auctions (Vickrey auctions) in which bidders place their bid in a sealed envelope and simultaneously hand them to the auctioneer. The envelopes are opened and the individual with the highest bid wins, paying a price equal to the second-highest bid.
- Open ascending-bid auctions (English auctions) in which participants make increasingly higher bids, each stopping bidding when they are not prepared to pay more than the current highest bid. This continues until no participant is prepared to make a higher bid; the highest bidder wins the auction at the final amount bid. Sometimes the lot is only actually sold if the bidding reaches a reserve price set by the seller.
- Open descending-bid auctions (Dutch auctions) in which the price is set by the auctioneer at a level sufficiently high to deter all bidders, and is progressively lowered until a bidder is prepared to buy at the current price, winning the auction.
Most auction theory revolves around these four "basic" auction types. However, other auction types have also received some academic study (see Auction Types).
Benchmark modelEdit
The benchmark model for auctions, as defined by McAfee and McMillan (1987), offers a generalization of auction formats, and is based on four assumptions:
- All of the bidders are risk-neutral.
- Each bidder has a private valuation for the item independently drawn from some probability distribution.
- The bidders possess symmetric information.
- The payment is represented as a function of only the bids.
The benchmark model is often used in tandem with the Revelation Principle, which states that each of the basic auction types is structured such that each bidder has incentive to report their valuation honestly. The two are primarily used by sellers to determine the auction type that maximizes the expected price. This optimal auction format is defined such that the item will be offered to the bidder with the highest valuation at a price equal to their valuation, but the seller will refuse to sell the item if they expect that all of the bidders' valuations of the item are less than their own.[1]
Relaxing each of the four main assumptions of the benchmark model yields auction formats with unique characteristics:
- Risk-averse bidders incur some kind of cost from participating in risky behaviors, which affects their valuation of a product. In sealed-bid first-price auctions, risk-averse bidders are more willing to bid more to increase their probability of winning, which, in turn, increases their expected utility. This allows sealed-bid first-price auctions to produce higher expected revenue than English and sealed-bid second-price auctions.
- In formats with correlated values—where the bidders’ values for the item are not independent—one of the bidders perceiving their value of the item to be high makes it more likely that the other bidders will perceive their own values to be high. A notable example of this instance is the Winner’s curse, where the results of the auction convey to the winner that everyone else estimated the value of the item to be less than they did. Additionally, the linkage principle allows revenue comparisons amongst a fairly general class of auctions with interdependence between bidders' values.
- The asymmetric model assumes that bidders are separated into two classes that draw valuations from different distributions (i.e., dealers and collectors in an antiques auction).
- In formats with royalties or incentive payments, the seller incorporates additional factors, especially those that affect the true value of the item (e.g., supply, production costs, and royalty payments), into the price function.[1]
A game-theoretic auction model is a mathematical game represented by a set of players, a set of actions (strategies) available to each player, and a payoff vector corresponding to each combination of strategies. Generally, the players are the buyer(s) and the seller(s). The action set of each player is a set of bid functions or reservation prices (reserves). Each bid function maps the player's value (in the case of a buyer) or cost (in the case of a seller) to a bid price. The payoff of each player under a combination of strategies is the expected utility (or expected profit) of that player under that combination of strategies.
Game-theoretic models of auctions and strategic bidding generally fall into either of the following two categories. In a private value model, each participant (bidder) assumes that each of the competing bidders obtains a random private value from a probability distribution. In a common value model, the participants have equal valuations of the item, but they do not have perfectly accurate information about this valuation. In lieu of knowing the exact valuation of the item, each participant can assume that any other participant obtains a random signal, which can be used to estimate the true valuation, from a probability distribution common to all bidders.[2] Usually, but not always, a private values model assumes that the values are independent across bidders, whereas a common value model usually assumes that the values are independent up to the common parameters of the probability distribution.
A more general category for strategic bidding is the affiliated values model, in which the bidder's total utility depends on both their individual private signal and some unknown common value. Both the private value and common value models can be perceived as extensions of the general affiliated values model.[3]
Ex-post equilibrium in a simple auction market.
When it is necessary to make explicit assumptions about bidders' value distributions, most of the published research assumes symmetric bidders. This means that the probability distribution from which the bidders obtain their values (or signals) is identical across bidders. In a private values model which assumes independence, symmetry implies that the bidders' values are independently and identically distributed (i.i.d.).
An important example (which does not assume independence) is Milgrom and Weber's "general symmetric model" (1982).[4][5] One of the earlier published theoretical research addressing properties of auctions among asymmetric bidders is Keith Waehrer's 1999 article.[6] Later published research include Susan Athey's 2001 Econometrica article,[7] as well as Reny and Zamir (2004).[8]
The first formal analysis of auctions was by William Vickrey (1961). Vickrey considers two buyers bidding for a single item. Each buyer's value, v, is an independent draw from a uniform distribution with support [0,1]. Vickrey showed that in the sealed first-price auction it is an equilibrium bidding strategy for each bidder to bid half his valuation. With more bidders, all drawing a value from the same uniform distribution it is easy to show that the symmetric equilibrium bidding strategy is
- .
To check that this is an equilibrium bidding strategy we must show that if it is the strategy adopted by the other n-1 buyers, then it is a best response for buyer 1 to adopt it also. Note that buyer 1 wins with probability 1 with a bid of (n-1)/n so we need only consider bids on the interval [0,(n-1)/n]. Suppose buyer 1 has value v and bids b. If buyer 2's value is x he bids B(x). Therefore buyer 1 beats buyer 2 if
- that is
Since x is uniformly distributed, buyer 1 bids higher than buyer 2 with probability nb/(n-1). To be the winning bidder, buyer 1 must bid higher than all the other bidders (which are bidding independently). Then his win probability is
Buyer 1's expected payoff is his win probability times his gain if he wins. That is,
It is readily confirmed by differentiation that U(b) takes on its maximum at
It is not difficult to show that B(v) is the unique symmetric equilibrium. Lebrun (1996)[9] provides a general proof that there are no asymmetric equilibria.
4 Comments:
2014~2015年版 新しい経済の教科書 (日経BPムック 日経ビジネス) 雑誌 – 2014/4/14
日経ビジネス (編集)
ヴァリアンとミルグロムのインタビューの完全版
ネットにあったのは一部
このシリーズは充実していたがこの号は突出してお得
NAMS出版プロジェクト
HTTP://WWW.FREEASSOCIATIONS.ORG/
2019年2月11日、月曜日
vickrey1961
カウンセリング、オークション、
競合シールテンダ
ウィリアムビックレイ
コロンビア大学
統制の彼の経済学では、APラーナーは興味深いを捨てた
市場が不完全に競争的であるところでは、国家
政府機関は、「逆推論」を通じて、
効率的な資源のための限界条件
割り当ては維持できます。 残念ながら、それは明らかにされていませんでした
この逆推測がどのように行われたのか、そして多くの人々に
この用語は、ガラガラ音がするもう1つの空のボックスを意味します
経済学者のアイデアの戸棚の中で。 そしてに見える
統制の経済学が最初に登場してからの数年で、
この興味深いラベルに書かれているものだけを批判的に調べることはしません
箱は実際に含んでいるかもしれません
セクションIでは、この反対投機ボックスについてさらに検討します。
それは最もすぐに示唆しているデバイスのほとんどが
この見出しの下にある自分自身は、非常に高価であることが証明されています。
に関連した州の財政資源に対する彼らの要求の条件
実現されるべき純利益、少なくとも問題の商品が
分割は細かく分割可能です。 もう1つの極端なケースでは、
割り振られる単一の分割不可能な項目は、セクションIIで調べられます。 に
この場合、短期間で最適な解に達する可能性があります。
参加人数の限られたケットがかなりなる
明るく:一般的または漸進的なタイプのオークションを表示できます
回帰よりも最適な割り当てのためのより良い機会を提供するため
または「オランダ」オークション。 これらの調査結果がより多くの
契約が許可されている、または競合他社が売
入札または入札はセクションIIIで検討されます。 分析はaを明らかにする
これらの現在の慣行の特定の修正が
具体的には、賞金を
最高入札価格ではなく、2番目に高い(または最低の)入札価格
価格は、一般に
売り手の利益に害を及ぼすことなく(または
最初のように見えるかもしれませんように)。 セクションIV
やや複雑で一般的なクラスのケース
競売にかけられるべきいくつかの同一のアイテムがあります、そしてセクションVは対処します
第IV節で導き出された概念の販売への応用
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価格安定のためのウッドフォード財政要件2
COUNTERSPECULATION, AUCTIONS, AND
COMPETITIVE SEALED TENDERS
WILLIAM VICKREY
Columbia University
In His Economics of Control, A. P. Lerner threw out an interesting
suggestion that where markets are imperfectly competitive, a state
agency, through "counterspeculation," might be able to create the
conditions whereby the marginal conditions for efficient resource
allocation could be maintained. Unfortunately, it was not made clear
just how this counterspeculation was to be carried out, and to many
this term denotes just one more of the empty boxes that rattle
around in the economist's cupboard of ideas. And there appears to
have been, in the years since Economics of Control first appeared,
no attempt to examine critically just what this intriguingly labeled
box might in fact contain
In Section I this counterspeculation box will be further examined;
it turns out that most of the devices that most immediately suggest
themselves under this heading prove to be inordinately expensive irn
terms of their demands on the fiscal resources of the state relative to
the net benefits to be realized, at least where the commodity in ques-
tion is finely divisible. The other extreme case, where there is only a
single indivisible item to be allocated, is examined in Section II; in
this case the possibilities for reaching an optimum solution in a mar-
ket with a limited number of participants become considerably
brighter: the common or progressive type of auction can be shown
to provide better chances for optimal allocation than the regressive
or "Dutch" auction. The implications of these findings for the more
significant cases where contracts are let or sales made by competitive
bids or tenders are examined in Section III; the analysis reveals a
likelihood that certain modifications of current practices in these
areas, more specifically by making the award price equal to the
second highest (or lowest) bid price rather than the highest bid
price, might prove generally beneficial in improving the allocation of
resources without being as prejudicial to the interests of sellers (or
buyers) as might at first seem to be the case. Section IV deals with
the somewhat more complicated and general class of cases where
there are several identical items to be auctioned, and Section V deals
with the application of the concepts derived in Section IV to the sale
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